AP Biology Chapters 1-5 Notes
Emergent properties=hierarchical
organization of biological processes.
MoleculeàOrganelleàCellàTissueàOrganism
Prokaryotes
(lack nucleus)= Domains Bacteria (blue-green algae, cyanobacteria, and E. Coli)
and Archaea (halophiles which love salt and thermophiles which love hot places
such as geysers).
Eukaryotes (have
nucleus)= Kingdoms Protista (Euglena, paramecia, amoeba; unicellular; 20-50
micrometers), Fungi (heterotrophs which means they cannot make their own food,
cell wall made of chitin, saprophytes aka mushrooms, think decomposers,
multicellular), Plantae (autotrophs which means they can make their own food
using the process of photosynthesis), Animalia (heterotrophs).
Feedback Mechanisms=
help regulate the body and maintain homeostasis which is a stable, internal
environment. 2 types: negative and positive. Negative feedback is when there is
not enough of something and the body says to make more. Positive is the
response when the product is being made of enough.
Evolution=
Charles Darwin and his studies on the Galapagos Islands (remember beaks of
finches lab). Natural selection is the altering of traits from parent to
offspring to better adapt to environment.
CNHOPS= elements
most abundant in life. Stands for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorous,
sulfur.
Types of
Chemical Bonds:
·
Covalent
bonds=sharing of electrons between 2 atoms.
o
Nonpolar
covalent= equal sharing such as hydrogen, oxygen, and methane.
o
Polar
covalent= not equal such as water.
Water molecules
are comprised of two hydrogen atoms bonded covalently to a single oxygen.
A single
hydrogen bond is weak. Together, hydrogen bonds are STRONG.
Surface tension
is the measure of how difficult it is to stretch or break the surface of a
liquid. Think of it this way—the surface is tense meaning hard to penetrate.
Specific heat
is the amount of heat it takes to either warm or cool a liquid by one degree Celsius.
Think of it this way-the ocean has a great specific heat because it takes so
long for it to get cold or warm.
High specific
heat of H2O allows aquatic/terrestrial organisms to live in a relatively
constant internal temp.
Vaporization
is going from a liquid to a gas.
Freezing is
going from a liquid to a solid.
Solution is
a mixture of 2 or more substances.
Solvent is
the dissolving agent such as tea. Water is an excellent solvent.
Solute is
the substance that is dissolved such as the sugar you pour into your tea.
Polar molecules
that dissolve in H2O are hydrophilic which means they LOVE water.
Fat molecules
don’t dissolve in H2O…they cluster together and are hydrophobic (have a
phobia of water).
Ionization of
water—think acids and bases!
In H2O,
hydrogen can jump from the oxygen to which it is covalently bonded to the one
it is hydrogen bonded.
Hydrogen bonding
occurs when a hydrogen atom is bonded to a highly electronegative atom. Electronegativity
is the tendency to attract electrons.
Two ions
form= hydronium H+, H3O+ (acidic) and hydroxyl which is OH- (basic).
Solutions are
acidic when there are more hydronium ions than there are hydroxyl ones.
Ex. HCl (if
it starts with H, it’s an acid)
They’re
basic when there are more hydroxyl ions than there are hydroniums.
Ex. NaOH (…and
if it ends with an OH that means it’s a base).
Organic chemistry
deals with CARBON !!! (hydrogen too).
The heterotroph
hypothesis deals with the primitive days of Earth… back before the cavemen… it
explains how life could have started on Earth. If certain circumstances exist
on Earth, then a cell can be born… or something to that extent.
Ionic bonds-transfer
of electrons between atoms (as opposed to sharing in covalent).
Example:
NaCl aka salt or if you want to get fancy, sodium chloride.
Hydrogen Bonds
are (again) formed when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to one
electronegative atom and is also attached to another one of those.
Isomers (not
isoTOPES which differ in the number of nuetrons) are compounds that have the
same molecular formula (written out with letters and numbers such as NaCl) but
different structural formulas (drawn out).
Structural
Isomer—differs in covalent arrangement.
*Geometric Isomer—differ
in spatial arrangements…? Yeah instead think of the model molecules we played
with in chemistry. 3D for the win.
Enantiomers—molecules
that are mirror images of each other. Cannot be overlapped.
Functional Groups
are attached the carbon skeleton and gives molecules their chemical properties
(think ketones, aldehydes, all that jazz from the Chemistry reference tables).
Organic molecules
are made up of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
Carbohydrates
are SRONG. They are polymers of sugar. Polymers are long chains. It’s principle
energy storage molecule. The cell wall of a plant is made up of cellulose.
Number of
Sugar Molecules Classification (still on carbohydrates):
Monosaccharide’s (one): single sugars
like glucose, galactose, and fructose. (CH2O)n. ‘n’ can range from 3-8. Classified
by hydroxyl groups (-OH) and an aldehyde or ketone group.
Disaccharides (two): lactose, sucrose. Transport sugars.
Principal way sugars are transported in invertebrates (lack a spine). Sucrose is
made by adding fructose and glucose together and also adding water in a process
called hydrolysis (digestion).
Polysaccharides (more than two): many
molecules called polymers like starch and chitin (makes up cell wall of fungi).
Starch is the principal storage molecule in plants. Starch is made up of
amylose and amylopectin. Glycogen is the principal sugar storage form in
animals… when there is an excess of glucose in the bloodstream, it is stored by
the liver as glycogen. If there is a lack of glucose, then the glycogen hormone
causes the liver to release glucose into the blood.
Structural Polysaccharides:
·
Cellulose=
cell wall. Flexible while plant is young to allow for growth but becomes harder
and more rigid as time goes on.
·
Cellulose
is a polymer made of glucose but can only be used as fuel.
Quick Exam Review
CHNOPS
stands for the elements most abundant in life.
Atomic
number=number of protons.
Mass number=number
of protons and neutrons; may also be referred to as atomic weight.
Isotopes=protons
give an element its identity but sometimes the number of neutrons differ
creating isotopes.
Electron configuration
and orbitals—valence shells (outermost shell of any atom; When the valence
electron in any atom gains sufficient energy from some outside force, it can
break away from the parent atom and become what is called a free electron), spatial arrangement
(think geometric isomers).
When writing
an electron configuration follow these steps:
1. Number of shell.
2. Letter of orbital.
3. Number of electrons in that orbital.
Orbitals are
S, P, D, and F.
Make sure
exponents add up to number of electrons.
Chemical bonds
are covalent (sharing of electrons between 2 atoms), polar (equal sharing),
nonpolar (not equal sharing), ionic (transfer of electrons between 2 atoms),
hydrogen (bonded to more electronegative and another electronegative), Van der
Waals (cool and hot spots, electrons being repelled and attracted by nucleus).
In a solvent
(dissolving agent), like dissolves like… in other words, polar dissolves polar
and nonpolar dissolves nonpolar.
Dissociation
is when water molecules break up into ions (hydronium and hydroxyl).
Organic
chemistryàcarbon!
Heterotroph hypothesis:
methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), CO2, H2, H2O.
Molecular formula
is written out using letters/numbers; structural formula is drawn out.
Fatty acids
are long chains of carbon.
Structural isomers
have the same molecular formula but a different structure.
Geometric isomers
(think 3D models of molecules).
Enantiomers are
molecule mirror images that cannot be laid on top of each other.
Polymers are
large molecules consisting of similar/identical building blocks or monomers.
Assembled=
condensation or dehydration synthesis (coming together)
Disassembled=
hydrolysis (add H2O, digestion)
Glucose forms
a ring, can form alpha or beta.
Certain enzymes
can break down alpha and beta in polysaccharides.
Alpha=hydroxyl
upward, opposite sides of the ring.
Beta=hydroxyl
downward.
Fats and
lipids/oils=3 fatty acids and glycerol molecule; LONG carbon chains.
Phospholipid=polar
head, nonpolar tails.
Proteins are
polymers composed of amino acid monomers.
Covalent peptide
bonds
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